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Comprehensive analysis of the TGF-β signaling pathway: molecular mechanisms, disease drivers, and frontiers in clinical translation

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is one of the most complex and context-dependent cytokines in the immune system. Its signaling pathway regulates differentiation, functions, and microenvironment-specific adaptations of immune cells through Smad-dependent and Smad-independent pathways. In normal...

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Main Authors: Yiting Zhang, Haixia Tang, Ze Zhou, Jiabao Liao, Xiaoyu Zhou, Xin Chu, Mengqiu Shao, Caiyan Zhang, Lijuan Jiang
Format: Artigo
Language:Inglês
Published: Frontiers Media S.A. 2026-06-01
Series:Frontiers in Immunology
Subjects:
fibrosis
immune regulation
Smad/non-Smad pathway
targeted therapy
TGF-β signaling pathway
tumor microenvironment
Online Access:https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2026.1831213/full
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